Reptiles Leopard Geckos

In the quantum vacuum there are many transient acceleration vectors of mean magnitude a randomly oriented. If the vacuum is viewed from an accelerated frame, the vectors going with the frame appear diminished, and the vectors going against the frame appear enhanced, resulting in a net polarization of the vacuum. If the frame's acceleration g is small, the effect is linear, and if the vacuum is filled with vectors the coefficient of the polarization will be unity. The standard exponential term for suppressing high-energy fluctuations must also be applied. Hence the vacuum polarization is g exp (g/a). The terms of the exponent when multiplied by the dipole moment have the dimensions of energy.

The rest frame of the galaxy, for example, is accelerated with respect to local inertial frames that fall into the center. In this rest frame the vacuum appears polarized and enhances the galaxy's gravitational field g. So we have

g= -GM/r + g exp (g/a)

where g is understood to be negative. For g much greater than a, the exponential is negligible and Newton's law results. But for g less than a, the exponential can be expanded to 1 + g/a and we get

g = aGM/r

This is precisely the formula found empirically by Milgrom to explain the motion of stars and galaxies in the weak-field region, except the law of gravity is altered, not the law of motion (Scientific American, August 2002). He finds that a is about one Angstrom per second squared, which is near the "surface gravity" of an electron, the field of a one-kilogram mass at one meter, or the field of a galaxy in its outer parts. Also, the square of a is not far from the value of the cosmological constant, in units where c=1. In this model, a may be viewed as the saturated field strength of the quantum vacuum.

The observations can be adequately explained by assuming a plausible amount of ordinary matter M and using the correct quantum law of gravity. There is no need for dark matter.

As space accelerates away from us, the resulting apparent polarization would enhance the acceleration, and indeed might cause the acceleration, once the process has begun, due perhaps to some disturbance long ago. If space is collapsing in some remote region, the same process would enhance the collapse. So the cosmos may consist of interspersed regions of expansion and collapse. When expansion becomes extreme, a big bang would result as virtual particles are ripped out of the vacuum. A collapsing region would produce a big crunch, where matter is crushed back into the vacuum. The whole process is presumably infinite and eternal.

Jay Daniel Shelton attended the University of British Columbia, where he received a Masters degree in Physics. He is a independent investigator and resides in Fruita, Colorado.

http://jasia.ca/jaydshelton/quantumgravity/index.html

It is that time of the year and your teacher hands out a piece of paper to take home that states the next class assignment is a science fair project and is due in a few weeks.

You may have already picked out a project to do but if not try all the following steps:

1. Originality Is Key!

Your teachers or whoever judges the science fair projects will look for new ideas that are being presented to them. They do not want to see the old stale information from last year. You could definitely think of something that could fix a problem you have in your house or with a product.

2. Prepare

Now that you have the idea it is important to do the project good and you will not do it well if you do not prepare first.

3. Project You

This is one of my biggest pet peeves. The kids come home and hand their parents the paper and expect their mom or dad to give them an idea, get the materials, set up the experiment and do the project. They tell their child what happened and give them the experiment to take to school. No way! This is why you are doing a science project to learn something about science and what better way than to do the experiment yourself.

4. What Are You Doing?

If you have a good idea does your project have clear cut steps to prove your theory? If not you may just be treading water. Keep it simple and understandable and make sure it solves a question or solution.

6. Do You Know It?

When you present the experiment and its outcome to your teacher are you knowledgeable? If they ask a question can you tell them the answer without being goofy? You need to know the information about your project. Your teacher will be impressed and you will actually learn something if you truly know everything about your science experiment. Make sure to do a project that you will be able to understand. If it is really complicated and you still do not understand the concept when you are done then maybe it is too old for you. You need to understand the science level you are trying to accomplish.

7. Answer The Question

Did you answer the question you determined in your hypothesis? If you have shown a science project make sure it works and proves the hypothesis or disproves it.

8. Documentation and Evidence

Give all informational support about the answer you generated in the experiment. You have to prove what you are saying and doing is correct so have back up information to show them.

9. Do Something You Like and Put Yourself Into It

You need to pick a topic that you like and put enough time into the project. If you quickly jot down the science information it will show so pick something you like and will spend time doing and researching to prove a point. Your teacher will see your hard work.

Hope your next science fair project is successful when you follow these steps.

Find more science project ideas and kids science projects at scienceprojects.fetching.us

Lesa Bolt is a contributor to http://scienceprojects.fetching.us

Memory is an integral part of human life. This can be defined as one's potential to store, retain and consistently retrieve information. For years, experts in the field of medical science have been studying and researching to find ways to enhance memory.

A lot has gone into the study of how human memory works. Experts feel that the more you learn about your memory, the better understanding you can develop in order to improve it.

There are several things we don't forget in our lives such as our crucial school days, summer holidays, some of the tales by granny, the scent of earth when it rains, first love and a lot more. These are the memories that make our life happier.

There are also certain bad memories associated to our lives and we tend to store them in our brain for a long long time. These memories are some of the experiences that allow you to be a different person.

In modern times, experts believe that memory is complex. The memory of anything in your life or day to day activities can be referred to as a 'complex constructive power'. Everyone possesses one. These are certain impressions coming from a pattern of cells that's similar to a web. These cells are scattered throughout the brain.

Experts believe that the memory is made up of a group of several systems. Each system plays a different role when it comes to creating, storing as well as recalling memories. As soon as the brain starts processing information, all the systems mentioned above start functioning together in a perfect manner in order to provide a combined thought.

What we actually visualize as a single memory is a complex engineering. Whenever you think of an object; for instance a toy, all your brain does is to retrieve the name of the object, its' function, shape and sound each time it plays or you take it in your hands. Every section of your memory describing at a toy is, derives from a totally different area of the brain. The whole image of toy is created by the brain from several regions of the brain.

Whenever you ride a bike or drive a car, a particular set of brain cells brings out the memory of operating the vehicle from starting till the end. When there are several things involved such as remembering how to ride a bike, the nervousness as a heavy vehicle passes by etc. comes from all parts of the brain. Experts have come to a conclusion that there is no solid distinction between the way you remember and the way you think.

Of course, the experts have come to a conclusion of how a system actually works. However, it is still not clear about how one remembers or what generally happens when one recalls.

The good news is that there are several things you can do to enhance your memory. There are several exercises, programs and techniques you can follow such as playing riddles, puzzles and several other activities that challenges your brain.

Human memory is a mystery but enhancing one is not!

For more Articles, News, Information, Advice, and Resources about BRAIN TRAINING please visit BRAIN TRAINING SECRETS

Appeared in 'Reptilia' Issue 34

Some people may wonder: of the thousands of snake species that exist in the world, why choose sand boas? Well, I sometimes wonder myself, but I do have a few good reasons. There are several species, subspecies, and varieties of sand boas, each with its own characteristics and personality. They are small, easy to care for, and relatively simple to breed. In fact, it is really too easy to build up a large collection.

Of the numerous species and subspecies that I keep, the European and central Asian sand boas are my special focus. These species occur across huge ranges, making considerable variety even within subspecies inevitable. Every individual sand boa is unique, and can be easily distinguished from others. The variety of patterns fascinates me, and whenever I see a remarkably different-looking sand boa, I attempt to purchase it.

Species

Eryx jaculus

This species is one of my personal favourites. There are three subspecies that occur in southern Europe and into northern Africa. Unfortunately it has not become a popular pet snake, primarily because of trade restrictions this species is listed in CITES Appendix II and Annex A of European legislation. Within the European Union, every Eryx jaculus specimen must have identification papers. This is too much hassle for many breeders, who therefore choose not to keep this species.

Eryx jaculus jaculus, the javelin sand boa, is the most commonly available subspecies. Many captives are of Egyptian and Jordanian bloodlines. This subspecies grows slightly larger and is more heavily built than the other two subspecies. It is also slightly more aggressive, but captive-bred specimens can be tamed and become easy to handle.

Eryx jaculus turcicus, the Turkish sand boa, is predominantly found in Turkey and into Syria. It is smaller than Eryx jaculus jaculus and rarely available in the pet trade. There are a few breeders working with this subspecies, so I hope it will become more common.

Eryx jaculus familiaris, the Bulgarian sand boa, is more slender than the other Eryx jaculus subspecies. It is also the most docile, and has an intricate pattern, making it perhaps the most pet-worthy of the three. Nonetheless, it is very rare in captivity and becoming increasingly scarce in the wild. I am currently working with a group of six specimens, which I hope to reproduce in 2005.

Eryx miliaris

This species is divided into two subspecies: the more commonly seen Eryx miliaris miliaris, the brown Russian sand boa; and Eryx miliaris nogaiorum, the black Russian sand boa. With selective breeding, I hope to produce several variations of these subspecies. My primary project is to produce a captive-bred line of the super black Russian sand boa, a naturally occurring form of Eryx miliaris nogaiorum that is almost completely jet black, with only a few white and grey speckles running down the sides.

Every few years, Russian sand boas of both subspecies are brought into Europe in relatively small numbers. Wild-caught adults do not make the best of pets, and many are rather bland in colour, making them unattractive. This is not likely to become a generally popular pet species, but it will always have its place in the hearts of many enthusiasts. I hope that captive-bred babies will be more desirable, encouraging hobbyists to keep this species.

Eryx tataricus

This species is divided into three subspecies: Eryx tataricus tataricus, which I call the Tartar sand boa; Eryx tataricus speciosus, which I call the spotted sand boa; and Eryx tataricus vittatus, which I do not currently have in my collection.

This is the second largest species of sand boa, with females often reaching lengths of 36 inches (91 cm). I have found this species remarkably easy to maintain. The snakes are generally quite docile and easy to feed. All of mine readily take thawed rodents.

This species is rarely seen in captivity, but because of its attractiveness and good disposition, I am confident that it will become more popular and readily available in the future. Eryx tataricus speciosus is especially attractive, and sought after by many enthusiasts. I have a long waiting list of people who want this subspecies, even at the relatively high prices dictated by short supply and high demand.

Acclimation

It is now illegal to capture wild Eryx jaculus (my group consists of captive-bred individuals from various European breeders), so this section on acclimation to captive conditions refers mainly to Eryx miliaris and Eryx tataricus. There are a number of procedures I follow when dealing with wild-caught snakes. Following is a step-by-step guide to acclimation.

1. The first and foremost thing to deal with is external parasites. Actually, sand boas rarely carry any form of mites or ticks, but a bath and parasite removal should be done as a precaution. There are several products on the market for removing parasites. I prefer one that is often also used for fleas on cats and dogs.

2. My next step is to try to get some food into the snake. The first couple of meals should be approximately two-thirds the girth of the snake if your snake is 3 centimetres in diameter, a rodent with a diameter of 2 centimetres is appropriate. It is important that the first meals stay down with no regurgitation. Once your snake is feeding regularly, you can increase the size of prey to slightly larger than the girth of the boa.

3. When the snakes feeding response is established, treatment for internal parasites should be carried out. I use fenbendazole at 50100 milligrams per kilo of snake body mass.

4. After treating for parasites, it is important to make sure the snakes feeding pattern is reestablished. In most cases, the snake will continue to feed without a problem, but sometimes a specimen will need some help. I use a water-soluble probiotic containing enzymes, vitamins, and minerals, which helps to stimulate a feeding response. This is added to the snakes water every day for about 10 days.

5. Finally, establish a weekly feeding routine. Make sure the snake stays healthy, and develops optimal condition in preparation for breeding.

Brummation

Brummation is torpor or inactivity associated with prolonged periods of low temperature, during which metabolism is reduced, but without true hibernation. This is a most crucial factor in getting these species to breed, and it is important to cool the snakes in a well-thought-out and proper manner.

Before temperatures are reduced, the snakes must be prepared for withstanding several months of low temperatures with no food. Starting in September, females should be fed every 57 days with two rodents of approximately the same girth as the snake. Males do not need as much energy reserve, and can be fed a single prey item every 710 days. At the end of October, feeding should be stopped altogether. During the following 2 weeks, the snake should be digesting its last meal and excreting most of the waste, before temperatures drop below the normal 8688F (3031C).

From mid November to the beginning of December, temperatures should be gradually reduced to 4650F (810C). It is not critical that the temperature decrease by the same amount every day. Begin by simply turning the heat source down and then off. After that, moving the snake onto the floor or into a cooler room may reduce the temperature another few degrees. By the end of November, a permanent place must be prepared where the temperature will stay constant at 4650F (810C). Eryx jaculus will breed after being cooled down to only 5256F (1113C), but Eryx miliaris and Eryx tataricus need the lower temperatures.

I live in southeastern England, where winter temperatures are normally consistently lower than needed for brummation. For me it is easiest to put the snakes in a place with outside temperatures, and use a low heat source to maintain the right temperature. I use a large, display freezer with heat mats controlled by a pulse-proportional thermostat. The sensor is placed in the middle. Since heat rises, the top half of the unit stays warmer than the bottom half, which is useful for wintering several species with different temperature requirements. I place my Eryx jaculus in the top half, and Eryx miliaris and Eryx tataricus in the bottom half. If you live in a warmer climate, a controlled refrigeration system may be necessary. Wine chillers are relatively inexpensive, and work well, but it is important to get one with a built-in thermostat so temperature can be accurately controlled.

At the low temperatures the snakes will be inactive, and should be kept in this state for 3 months. During the first 2 weeks of March, temperatures can be gradually increased back to normal, bringing the snakes out of brummation. Feeding should resume as soon as this 2-week period is over. I feed my females every 45 days for the next month. The first two meals should be small only about half the size of the snakes girth to reduce the chances of regurgitation or vomiting, and to facilitate the build-up of digestive enzymes, which are depleted during brummation.

Mating

Males and females are kept separate and housed individually except for mating. When placed together, as with many other species of boas, the ratio of males to females may be a determining factor in whether breeding is successful. I have three males, and put all of them in with one or sometimes two females. If I had more males, I would put as many as four per female (never more than two females) together in an enclosure.

Males are placed in the females enclosures starting at the end of March, a minimum of 23 days after the snakes have fed. If a snake is refusing food, it is a good idea to try to mate it anyway, as this often triggers a strong feeding response. In fact, males often refuse food after brummation, and do not start feeding again until after mating.

The males should be left with the females for 23 days, and then removed so the females can be fed and allowed to digest for 23 days. Females need to be fed at least once a week (more often is better) to build up energy reserves before they begin fasting during gestation. The males, on the other hand, can be moved directly from one enclosure of females to another, again for 23 days. After a second mating session, however, males should be returned to their own individual enclosures, fed, and allowed to digest for 23 days before being put with females again.

I usually observe copulation between 8 p.m. and 23 a.m. During this time it is important that the snakes be disturbed as little as possible. They are easily startled, and may move away from each other. Even if copulation is not seen, you will often see the male attempting to woo the female following her around the cage with his tongue flicking faster than usual, sensing the pheromones that she secretes. If such behaviour is observed, it is likely that this particular pair will eventually copulate.

These snakes copulate most readily just after shedding. A female that is about to shed may not respond to a male that has just shed and is especially rampant. Mating seems to be most successful when males and females shed at the same time. Males usually stop copulating after only about 3 weeks, so it is important and a little complicated if you have many snakes to coordinate mating and feeding sessions to take full advantage of the short breeding season.

Ovulation and gestation

Ovulation is the release of unfertilized ova from the ovaries into the oviducts. There they will be fertilized by sperm stored from previous copulation. Before ovulation, a female shows a large swelling at the middle of the body, appearing as though she had swallowed a meal twice the normal size. This swelling is usually present for about 1848 hours, and disappears as the ova move along and space out inside the uterus (lower part of the oviduct). Female Eurasian sand boas usually ovulate 13 weeks after mating. If ovulation occurs, it is quite possible that the female is then gravid (containing fertilized eggs); if ovulation does not occur within 3 weeks, one or two males should be placed with her again.

Fertilized eggs develop inside the female for a period of 35 months (usually 4 months). During this period, the gravid female must be able to reach an optimum body temperature of more than 95F (35C). She should be able to bask at temperatures of 98110F (3743C), but must also be able to escape these temperatures when necessary. The enclosure should be large enough to support a thermal gradient, with a cooler end at 7882F (2528C).

Birth

These boas are ovoviviparous. No shells are formed around the eggs, and embryos develop fully while still inside the mother. Babies are born in egg sacs, usually in late June or early July. In the last few days before birth, the swelling of the mother moves toward the tail. Eryx jaculus and Eryx miliaris tend to have 612 babies. Eryx tataricus have been recorded to have more than 30 babies, although this is uncommon usually they have 820 babies.

The babies, in their egg sacs, are deposited directly onto the floor of the enclosure. It is best to use a newspaper substrate at this time. The egg sac should not be cut or removed from the babies. They should be left alone and allowed to break free in their own time. They often sit in the egg sac for several hours, absorbing the remaining yolk. As soon as the babies begin crawling around the enclosure, they should be taken out and housed individually. The care of newborns is identical to that of the adults, although they should be kept on damp substrate until they shed their skins for the first time.

Sexing

Identifying the sexes of these sand boa species is generally easy by simple observation alone. Following are lists of characteristics for distinguishing the sexes in each of the species of Eurasian sand boas.

Eryx jaculus jaculus

Male Female
Cloacal probe depth (no. of scales) 912 24
Subcaudal scale count (average) 28 24
Tail percentage of total length 9.5% 6.8%
Adult total length 1218 in. 2030 in.

(2330 cm (5176 cm)

Eryx jaculus familiaris

Male* Female
Cloacal probe depth (no. of scales) 4+ 23
Subcaudal scale count (average) 23 21
Tail percentage of total length 9.5% 8.3%
Adult total length 18 in. 1824 in.

(46 cm) (4661 cm)
* Information for males taken from a single specimen

Eryx miliaris miliaris and Eryx miliaris nogaiorum

Male Female
Cloacal probe depth (no. of scales) 812 24
Subcaudal scale count (average) 26 21
Tail percentage of total length 11% 7.9%
Adult total length 1215 in. 2028 in.

(3038 cm) (5171 cm)

Eryx tataricus tataricus

Male Female
Cloacal probe depth (no. of scales) 1113 36
Subcaudal scale count (average) 31 24
Tail percentage of total length 12.6% 8.5%
Adult total length 24 in. 36 in.

(61 cm) (91 cm)

Eryx tataricus speciosus

Male Female
Cloacal probe depth (no. of scales) 1113 36
Subcaudal scale count (average) 30 22
Tail percentage of total length 12.6% 8.5%
Adult total length 24 in. 36 in.

(61 cm) (91 cm)

By Chris Jones
Director of Pet Club UK Ltd.
http://www.petclubuk.com